Enoch

About Enoch

Enoch (Hebrew: Chanokh, 'initiated' or 'dedicated') is the seventh patriarch in the Genesis genealogy from Adam, son of Jared and father of Methuselah, great-grandfather of Noah. Genesis 5:21-24 gives his lifespan as 365 years — a figure that parallels the solar year — and closes his biography with a verse unlike any other in the antediluvian list: 'Enoch walked with God, and he was not, for God took him.' Every other figure in the chapter is said to die. Enoch alone is taken.

Traditional chronologies place him in the pre-flood era, with dates ranging from roughly 3300 BCE in Ussher's scheme to symbolic rather than historical markers in scholarly reading. The textual tradition bearing his name appears much later: 1 Enoch (the Ethiopic Book of Enoch) takes shape in Aramaic across the 3rd century BCE through the 1st century CE, preserved in full only in Ge'ez by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church; 2 Enoch (the Slavonic Book of Enoch) survives in Old Church Slavonic manuscripts and likely reflects a 1st-century CE Jewish-Hellenistic milieu; 3 Enoch (Sefer Hekhalot) is a Hebrew Merkabah text from roughly the 5th to 6th centuries CE and contains the transformation of Enoch into Metatron. A fourth layer — the medieval and early-modern reception — stretches from Syriac and Coptic fragments through Byzantine chronography, the Slavonic Paleya literature, Ethiopian monastic commentary, and, in the Latin West, the 18th-century rediscovery of 1 Enoch by James Bruce, who brought three Ge'ez manuscripts back from Abyssinia in 1773.

The corpus attributed to him is not a single book but a library. The Book of the Watchers (1 Enoch 1-36) narrates the fall of the angelic Watchers under Semyaza and Azazel, their mating with the daughters of men, the birth of the Nephilim, and Enoch's intercession on the Watchers' behalf. The Astronomical Book or Book of Luminaries (1 Enoch 72-82) preserves a 364-day solar calendar taught to Enoch by the archangel Uriel — a calendar whose fragments at Qumran show it was lived, not merely imagined. The Similitudes or Book of Parables (1 Enoch 37-71) introduces the 'Son of Man,' the 'Elect One,' and the 'Righteous One' — figures whose vocabulary echoes through the Gospels and Revelation. The Dream Visions (1 Enoch 83-90) offer two symbolic reviews of history, the second — the Animal Apocalypse — narrating all human history from Adam to the Maccabean period through a menagerie of bulls, sheep, and rams. The Epistle of Enoch (1 Enoch 91-105), including the Apocalypse of Weeks, closes the Ethiopic corpus with a periodization of history into ten weeks and an ethical exhortation to the righteous. 2 Enoch tours the seven heavens and returns Enoch briefly to earth to instruct his sons. 3 Enoch narrates his final transformation into Metatron and the ordering of the heavenly court.

Across traditions, Enoch is the ancestor who did not die. Second Temple Judaism held the Enochic literature widely enough that the Dead Sea Scrolls preserve copies of every Enochic booklet except the Similitudes — eleven manuscripts, all in Aramaic, identified and published by Józef Milik in 1976. Early Christianity cited him as scripture: the Epistle of Jude quotes 1 Enoch 1:9 directly, naming him ('Enoch, the seventh from Adam, prophesied'), and Tertullian, Origen, and Irenaeus treated the text as authoritative. Tertullian defended the book's canonicity against the argument that it could not have survived the flood, reasoning that Noah preserved it; Augustine, later, read it as spiritually useful but not canonically scriptural, and the Latin West gradually let it fall out of circulation. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church retains 1 Enoch in its canon to this day — one of the few traditions in which the text was never lost. Islamic tradition identifies Enoch with the prophet Idris, named twice in the Qur'an (19:56-57, 21:85-86), described as 'a man of truth, a prophet,' raised by God 'to a high station.' Jewish mysticism in the Hekhalot and Merkabah schools developed his ascent into an elaborate doctrine of the heavens, culminating in 3 Enoch's identification of Enoch as Metatron, the 'Prince of the Presence,' the 'Lesser YHWH.' Kabbalah preserves and extends this identification, placing Metatron at the crown of the angelic hierarchy and tying him to the sefirotic world. The Mormon scriptural tradition, through Joseph Smith's Pearl of Great Price, adds the Book of Moses, which depicts Enoch as prophet of a translated city called Zion whose inhabitants, in their righteousness, are taken up with him. Western esotericism reaches back to him through John Dee and Edward Kelley's sixteenth-century Enochian angelic language, a system whose linguistic and ritual structures still circulate in Hermetic, Rosicrucian, and modern ceremonial magical traditions.

What holds the cross-tradition picture together is a single motif: the mortal who crosses. Enoch walks with God, ascends alive, receives the secrets of the heavens, and returns or is transformed. Every later ascent narrative in the Abrahamic orbit — Elijah's chariot, Paul's third heaven, Muhammad's Mi'raj, the Merkabah visionaries' palace journeys, the Christian rapture — draws from the template his story established. The figure that survives the translation from language to language, tradition to tradition, is not a doctrine but a template: the seventh generation, the three-hundred-year walk, the instruction by angels, the taking, the return with knowledge, the final transformation.

Mythology and narrative. The biography compressed into four verses of Genesis expands, across the Enochic corpus, into a full visionary literature spanning more than 100 chapters across 1 Enoch, 2 Enoch, and 3 Enoch.

He is born to Jared in the seventh generation from Adam. Jubilees 4 adds a detail Genesis omits: Enoch is the first human taught to write, the first to record astronomy, the first to set down the months and the signs of the zodiac. Where Seth's line remembers the name of YHWH, Enoch's gift is the stylus. He marries Edna — the name means 'pleasure' or 'delight' in Hebrew — and fathers Methuselah at sixty-five. From Methuselah will come Lamech, and from Lamech will come Noah. The Ethiopian tradition preserves additional sons and daughters, and 2 Enoch names his sons Methuselah, Regim, and Gaidad, to whom he delivers his final instructions.

Genesis 5:22 says that after the birth of Methuselah, Enoch 'walked with God three hundred years.' The Hebrew phrase 'walked with' is used elsewhere in the antediluvian list only of Noah. It describes sustained companionship with the divine, not a single encounter. The Enochic tradition fills that three-hundred-year silence with instruction. In the Book of the Watchers (1 Enoch 12-16), Enoch is seated by the waters of Dan at the foot of Mount Hermon when the fallen Watchers approach him. Two hundred of these angels, led by Semyaza and including Azazel, have descended on Mount Hermon in the days of Jared, taken human wives, fathered the Nephilim, and taught humanity forbidden arts — metallurgy and weapon-craft from Azazel, enchantments and root-cuttings from Semyaza, the courses of the moon and the signs of the stars from others, the making of antimony for cosmetics from Kasdeja. The earth cries out under the violence of the Nephilim, who consume the harvests and, when their demands exceed what the earth can yield, turn on humans and on one another. God sends the archangels Michael, Sariel, Raphael, and Gabriel to announce judgment. The Watchers, terrified, ask Enoch to intercede. He writes their petition, ascends, and receives God's reply: there will be no forgiveness. He returns to deliver the verdict. It is one of the oldest portraits in Jewish literature of the prophet as scribe and mediator between realms — and the first time the written word functions as the medium through which a human addresses the heavenly court.

The Astronomical Book records a second mode of ascent. Uriel, the archangel of light, shows Enoch the gates through which the sun and moon rise and set, the paths of the stars, the winds, and the mechanics of the year. The calendar Uriel teaches has 364 days, divided into four seasons of 91, with the sun — not the moon — as its governor. Fragments of this calendar appear in the Qumran scrolls, suggesting that at least one Jewish community in the late Second Temple period ordered its liturgical life by it. The teaching emphasizes that luminaries deviate from the true count only because of human sin, and that restoration of the calendar is tied to restoration of righteousness. Uriel's tutorial reads less like apocalyptic poetry and more like an astronomy primer — the leader-stars of the twelve gates, the ratios of day to night across the seasons, the failings of the moon — indicating that the Enochic scribes knew the sky empirically and were making a polemical point against the lunar calendar of the Jerusalem Temple establishment.

The Similitudes add the visionary dimension most familiar to readers of the New Testament. Enoch sees the 'Son of Man' seated beside the 'Head of Days,' a pre-existent figure chosen before the foundation of the world, whose vocation is to judge kings and the mighty. The Elect One will gather the righteous. The sinners' names will be blotted out. At the climax of the Similitudes, in 1 Enoch 71, Enoch himself is told, 'You are the Son of Man who was born for righteousness' — a verse scholars have debated for a century, some reading it as a later Christian interpolation reframed, others as a straightforward Jewish tradition in which the translated patriarch is identified with the eschatological judge. Scholars such as Nickelsburg and Boccaccini argue that the Similitudes were composed in the first century BCE or CE, making them roughly contemporary with — or slightly prior to — the Gospels' own 'Son of Man' language.

The Dream Visions present two earlier moments: a short vision of the flood (1 Enoch 83-84) in which young Enoch sees heaven collapse into the abyss and prays for the preservation of a remnant, and the long Animal Apocalypse (85-90) in which bulls, rams, and sheep replay the whole sweep of biblical history from Adam to the Maccabean uprising. The Epistle of Enoch (91-105) includes the Apocalypse of Weeks — ten seven-unit periods from creation through the final judgment — and a long series of woes against the rich and the oppressors, structurally close to the prophetic oracles of Amos.

2 Enoch narrates a more elaborate ascent. Two luminous men come to Enoch at night, wake him, and carry him upward through seven heavens. He sees the treasuries of the snow and the dew, the angels of the stars, paradise in the third heaven, the place of torment where the wicked are held, the chambers of the cherubim, the armies of the stars in the fifth heaven, the watchful archangels in the sixth, and finally the throne of God in the seventh. The archangel Vrevoil dictates to him for thirty days and thirty nights; Enoch fills three hundred and sixty-six books. He is anointed with the oil of glory, clothed in garments of the face, and instructed in the origins of the cosmos — in 2 Enoch 25-26 he receives the account of how God drew Adoil and Arukhaz out of the invisible, how the upper and lower waters were divided, how the days of creation unfolded. He is sent back to earth for thirty days to teach his sons — Methuselah, Regim, Gaidad, and others — gives them his books, warns them against idolatry, and then, in a final ascent, is taken up for good.

3 Enoch, composed much later in a Merkabah mystical idiom, carries the transformation to its limit. Rabbi Ishmael the High Priest ascends to the seventh heaven and is greeted by an angel called Metatron, who tells him: 'I was once Enoch, son of Jared.' Metatron describes being taken up in the days of the Flood generation, his flesh turned to flame, his eyes to lightning, his limbs to fire, seventy-two wings extended from his shoulders, and a throne placed for him at the door of the seventh palace. He is given seventy names and the title 'Lesser YHWH.' The text is careful: Metatron is not a second god, but the highest servant, the 'Prince of the Presence,' the record-keeper of the heavenly court, the teacher of the souls of righteous children who died before learning Torah. The tradition resolves a theological pressure — how to speak of a near-divine intermediary without slipping into the 'two powers in heaven' heresy the rabbis rejected — by making him a man who was taken. The Talmudic tractate Hagigah 15a preserves the unsettling story of Elisha ben Abuyah, the sage who saw Metatron seated in heaven and concluded there must be two powers, a vision for which Metatron was scourged with sixty fiery lashes to demonstrate his subordinate status. 3 Enoch elaborates the transformation in detail the earlier corpus only gestures at. The text enumerates Metatron's seventy names, each corresponding to a divine aspect or angelic office — among them Yahoel, Sagansagel, Zebudiel, and Na'aryah — names the Hekhalot tradition treats as operative words of power rather than honorifics. The bodily metamorphosis is described in equal specificity: Enoch's flesh is turned to flaming torches, his eyelashes into flashes of lightning, his eyeballs into burning lamps, the hair of his head into hot flames, every limb into a wing of fire, and his body into coals of burning fire. A throne is placed alongside God's, and this proximity is the textual detail that later triggers the Aher episode — Elisha ben Abuyah's vision of two thrones was not a misreading but a response to what the Merkabah literature itself depicts, and the tradition's discomfort with its own picture is preserved rather than resolved. Later midrashic layers extend Metatron's biography further: in rabbinic haggadah he is identified as the angel who stayed the hand of the destroyer at the Passover of Egypt, the celestial scribe who records the deeds of Israel, and the tutor of the souls of children who died before they could study Torah.

The Book of Jubilees places Enoch in the Garden of Eden after his ascent, keeping the records of all generations and burning the incense of the sanctuary — a priestly function that extends his role as scribe into the cultic sphere. In the Book of Moses within the Pearl of Great Price, Enoch founds the city of Zion, preaches to the wicked, weeps over the prophesied flood, and sees the community of the righteous 'taken up into heaven' with him — a community-wide translation mirroring his individual one and foundational to Mormon ecclesiology.

Traditions and reception. Invoked in Hekhalot and Merkabah ascent, John Dee's Enochian magic, and Ethiopian Orthodox liturgical readings

Iconography. Ascending in whirlwind or chariot; seated with scroll; as Metatron with flesh of flame

Sacred texts. Genesis 5:21-24; 1 Enoch; 2 Enoch; 3 Enoch; Jubilees; Qur'an 19:56-57 (as Idris)

Significance

Enoch's endurance across wildly different religious worlds is not accidental. He performs a set of functions that every tradition that encounters him finds useful.

First, as author-figure, he legitimizes an entire apocalyptic literature. The Enochic corpus reshaped Second Temple Judaism's cosmology — angels with names and hierarchies, a periodized history ending in judgment, a pre-existent redeemer figure, a developed doctrine of the afterlife and the resurrection of the righteous — and that cosmology then shaped early Christianity. Boccaccini's argument in *Beyond the Essene Hypothesis* is that Enochic Judaism was a distinct movement alongside Sadducean, Pharisaic, and Qumran communities, with its own priestly critique (an implicit polemic against the Jerusalem Temple establishment and its lunar calendar) and its own hope (a final judgment carried out by the Elect One). Its ideas did not vanish; they entered the New Testament. Jude cites Enoch's prophecy by name. The Epistle to the Hebrews lists him in the roll of faith. The 'Son of Man' of the Similitudes is the vocabulary Jesus uses in the Synoptics. The Revelation of John draws on Enochic imagery — the throne, the books of judgment, the fallen stars — at nearly every turn.

Second, Enoch is a bridge between antediluvian knowledge and post-flood civilization. Jubilees makes him the first scribe, the first astronomer, the first teacher of the calendar. The Babylonian historian Berossus, writing in Greek in the 3rd century BCE, preserved a parallel Mesopotamian tradition in which seven apkallu — pre-flood sages, human-fish hybrids emerging from the sea — taught humanity writing, law, astronomy, and the arts of civilization before the deluge. The seventh antediluvian king in the Sumerian King List, Enmeduranki of Sippar, is explicitly a figure initiated into heavenly secrets by Shamash and Adad, taught the tablet of the gods, the kiblu of heaven and earth, and the techniques of divination by oil and liver. Enoch, seventh from Adam, occupies the same structural slot in the Hebrew telling. Scholars such as VanderKam and Helge Kvanvig have traced the Mesopotamian background of the Enoch figure in detail; the parallels are close enough that the Enochic tradition looks like a Hebrew appropriation and reinterpretation of a widely shared ancient Near Eastern motif: the sage taken up to learn the order of heaven and earth before the flood erases the first world. The Enochic writers did not invent the figure; they inherited it, and rewrote him to carry Jewish concerns.

Third, he establishes the template for heavenly ascent. Elijah's chariot of fire (2 Kings 2) and Enoch's taking are the two pre-exilic precedents for ascension without death. By the 1st century CE, the template has proliferated: Paul's 'man caught up to the third heaven' (2 Corinthians 12), the rapture in 1 Thessalonians 4, the Merkabah visionaries' palace journeys through the seven hekhalot, the Apocalypse of Abraham, the Ascension of Isaiah, the Testament of Levi, the Islamic Isra and Mi'raj in which Muhammad ascends through seven heavens meeting Adam, Jesus, Joseph, Idris (Enoch), Aaron, Moses, and Abraham in turn. The ascent template carries the same structural elements wherever it appears: a visionary, an angelic guide, seven layers (sometimes three, sometimes ten), a throne, a transformation, a return with instruction. Enoch is the prototype. Alan Segal's *Two Powers in Heaven* and Moshe Idel's work on Merkabah mysticism both trace the continuity of the template across Jewish, Christian, and early Islamic visionary literature.

Fourth, as Metatron, he solves a specifically Jewish theological problem. The rabbis rejected the 'two powers in heaven' — any reading of Scripture that would posit a second divine being alongside YHWH. But the biblical text contains Angel-of-the-LORD passages where the angel speaks in the first person as God, and Daniel 7 shows two thrones and an 'Ancient of Days' distinct from a 'Son of Man.' Something in the tradition wanted a near-divine figure. Making that figure Enoch — a human who was taken, elevated, transformed, but still not God — preserves monotheism while retaining an intermediary. Gershom Scholem's work on Metatron remains the touchstone here: Metatron is the displaced form of an older, more provocative figure — possibly the Jewish angelic Name-bearer known as Yahoel, or an even earlier hypostasis of the divine Glory — made safer by being grounded in a human ancestor. Moshe Idel extended the argument, showing how Kabbalistic thinkers in the 13th century integrated Metatron into the sefirotic system as the 'garment' of the divine presence in the created world.

Fifth, modern ancient-astronaut interpretation reads the Enochic material as a record of contact. Erich von Däniken's *Chariots of the Gods* (1968) cited the Watchers' descent, their teaching of metallurgy and cosmology, and Enoch's 'whirlwind' ascent as evidence of extraterrestrial visitation. Zecharia Sitchin's Earth Chronicles, beginning with *The 12th Planet* (1976), built a similar case from the Sumerian material the Enochic corpus echoes, reading the Anunnaki as the source figures behind both the Watchers and the Elohim. The contemporary Italian biblical translator Mauro Biglino, a former Edizioni San Paolo translator who published his first independent book in 2010, reads 1 Enoch and Genesis as historical accounts of technological 'Elohim' who arrived, engineered humanity, and departed — a position rejected by mainstream biblical scholarship but widely circulated in Italian and translated into English through the 2010s. Anna Paulina Luna's April 2026 recommendation of the Book of Enoch to a mainstream American audience, in the context of congressional UAP hearings, brought this interpretive lineage into wider view overnight. Placing the lineage: von Däniken in the late 1960s, Sitchin through the 1970s and 80s, Biglino in the 2010s, the current disclosure discourse in the 2020s — a continuous reading community, not a consensus. The academic tradition (Nickelsburg, VanderKam, Orlov, Boccaccini) situates the Watchers, the Nephilim, and the ascent imagery within the literary conventions of Near Eastern apocalyptic and the theological concerns of late Second Temple Judaism, reading 'chariots' and 'whirlwinds' as the established idiom of prophetic vision (Ezekiel 1 is the obvious antecedent) rather than as vehicle descriptions. Both readings are live. A generation encountering the ancient texts for the first time through a congressional hearing is navigating the gap between them without the benefit of the academic framing, and the texts themselves — old, strange, pre-rational in their sensibility — are harder to fit into either box than a soundbite suggests.

That navigation is part of why Enoch endures. He is the figure at the seam between what was remembered before the flood and what was written after, between the human and the angelic, between the text and its visionary claim. A tradition that lost him for sixteen centuries in the Latin West preserved him unbroken in Ethiopia; a tradition that kept him as Idris in the Qur'an made him a station on the prophet's own ascent; a tradition that was shy of naming a second power made him the chief servant of the first. Across all of it, the narrow spine of the story holds: the mortal who walked with God, the mortal who was taken, the mortal who came back with something the rest of us did not have.

Connections

Enoch sits at the center of an unusually dense network of texts, figures, and later developments.

The attributed corpus begins with the Book of Enoch, and branches from there into 2 Enoch and 3 Enoch, the Book of Jubilees (which retells his life within a longer antediluvian chronology), and the brief Genesis passage that frames them all. The Book of the Watchers — 1 Enoch 1-36 — is inseparable from its antagonists. The Watchers are the two hundred angels who descend on Mount Hermon and break the boundary between the heavenly and human orders; their leader Semyaza and their initiator of metallurgy and forbidden arts, Azazel, become the named agents of pre-flood corruption. Their offspring, the Nephilim, are the giants whose violence draws Enoch into his role as intercessor and scribe of judgment.

His immediate family carries the genealogy into the flood narrative. Methuselah, his son, is the longest-lived figure in Genesis at 969 years. Lamech, his grandson, fathers Noah. Enoch's 'walk with God' is the first spiritual practice named in the Bible; Noah's later 'walk with God' in Genesis 6:9 mirrors it precisely, suggesting the Enochic lineage is the one that survives the flood.

Among the archangels, Uriel is his teacher in the Astronomical Book, Gabriel and Michael are his witnesses to the judgment of the Watchers, and Raphael binds Azazel in the desert of Dudael. In the Merkabah literature, the transformed Enoch becomes Metatron, 'Prince of the Presence,' and his seventy names and throne at the door of the seventh palace are elaborated across 3 Enoch and the Hekhalot corpus. Kabbalah carries this forward; the Kabbalistic tradition preserves Metatron at the top of the angelic hierarchy and integrates his transformation into the doctrine of the sefirot and the partzufim.

Mount Hermon, the site of the Watchers' descent, ties the Enochic geography to northern Palestine and to later New Testament narratives — the Transfiguration has traditionally been located there, and the symbolic resonance is hard to miss. Berossus's apkallu, the seven antediluvian sages of Mesopotamian tradition, run parallel to the seven generations from Adam to Enoch and provide the cultural backdrop for the 'seventh ancestor taken up to learn the heavens' motif; Enmeduranki of Sippar is the Sumerian structural cousin.

The ascent template links Enoch to Elijah, whose chariot ascent in 2 Kings 2 is the Hebrew Bible's second case of a prophet taken alive, and forward to Muhammad's Mi'raj — where Enoch appears as Idris in the sixth heaven, inside a tradition that reads his station as a model for the mystical journey. Paul's third-heaven ascent and Christian rapture theology draw from the same template. The Merkabah mystics of the 2nd through 6th centuries CE built their ascent practices around it.

Later Western esotericism adds two further branches. John Dee and Edward Kelley's sixteenth-century Enochian system, recorded in the *Liber Loagaeth* and the *Claves Angelicae*, claims to be the angelic language taught to Enoch — and its nineteen Enochian Keys, its Watchtowers and their Governors, still circulate in Hermetic, Rosicrucian, and modern ceremonial magical traditions, including the Golden Dawn and Thelemic orders. Joseph Smith's Book of Moses, within the Mormon Pearl of Great Price, narrates Enoch as founder of the translated city of Zion, extending the 'taking' motif from the individual to the community and grounding Mormon theology's peculiar attention to pre-flood revelation.

Within Satyori's framing, Enoch belongs to a small class of figures — Thoth, Hermes Trismegistus, the apkallu, Idris, and the Vedic rishis — who are remembered as the scribes and teachers of pre-civilizational wisdom. The family resemblance across those traditions is the material from which the cross-tradition comparison becomes possible. Thoth in the Egyptian tradition is explicitly the scribe of the gods, author of the Book of the Dead and of the forty-two books that held the knowledge of Egypt; Hermes Trismegistus (thrice-great Hermes), who emerged in Greco-Egyptian Alexandria as the syncretized form of Thoth, is the authorial voice of the Hermetic corpus; the seven apkallu of Mesopotamian tradition taught writing, medicine, and law; the rishis of the Rig Veda are said to have received the hymns directly from supra-sensible hearing. Each tradition imagines a class of pre-civilizational teacher, and Enoch is the Hebrew contribution to that category.

His connections also run sideways into later speculative lineages. The Book of the Giants, preserved at Qumran, extends the Nephilim narrative into a Manichaean version that circulated along the Silk Road. The Sibylline Oracles pick up the Enochic periodization of history. The Samaritan tradition preserves its own version of the antediluvian chronology. The Falasha (Beta Israel) of Ethiopia kept 1 Enoch in a living liturgical tradition from antiquity through the twentieth century. Medieval alchemical and hermetic texts cite the Enochic Watchers as the origin of metallurgical knowledge. The connections, mapped in full, cover most of the Old World.

A final cluster of connections runs through the modern esoteric revival. Madame Blavatsky's Theosophical Society cited the Book of Enoch in *Isis Unveiled* and *The Secret Doctrine* as evidence of a universal ancient wisdom. Rudolf Steiner's anthroposophical lectures returned repeatedly to the Watchers and the pre-flood initiation traditions. The Golden Dawn incorporated Dee's Enochian system into its grade rituals. Thelema, Wicca in its ceremonial wings, and modern Chaos magic all carry versions of the Enochian Keys forward. None of these is the academic Enoch; all of them are part of why he remains present in contemporary spiritual imagination.

Further Reading